In interventional cardiology, catheters are often inserted into a patient's artery or vein to help accomplish tasks such as angioplasty or pacemaker or defibrillator lead insertion. For example, a balloon dilation catheter expands at a site of blood vessel occlusion and compresses the plaque and improves patency of the vessel. An intravascular ultrasound catheter provides a 360° view of the lateral cross section of a vessel. Different types of atherectomy procedures are performed using devices such as the rotablade, laser catheter, or ultrasonic ablation catheter. The remarkably successful stents are deployed with the help of a balloon catheter.
Chronic total occlusion (CTO) is a disease that remains difficult to treat interventionally due to the inherent nature of the disease and the lack of adequate tools and devices. Some of the early devices, such as the Magnum™ guidewire (Schneider, Zurich, Switzerland), were made of a Teflon-coated steel shaft with an olive-shaped blunt tip. Results using this device in 800 chronic cases of CTO showed angiographic success in only 64% of the cases. One of the major failure modes was inability of the guidewire to advance.
The Kensey™ catheter (Theratech, Miami, Fla.) was a flexible polyurethane catheter with a rotating cam at the distal tip driven by an internal torsion guidewire at a speed of 10,000 rpm. Clinical evaluation in 11 patients with peripheral CTO diseases demonstrated only a 63% successful rate. The development of the device halted due to safety concerns.
The ROTACS™ low speed rotational atherectomy catheter (Oscor, Palm Harbor, Fla.) was made of several steel coils connected to a distal blunt tip of 1.9 mm. A motor drove the catheter rotation at 200 rpm. The catheter was unsuccessful due to safety concerns arising from the data that 30% of patients had extensive dissections.
The Excimer Laser Wire™ catheter (Spectranetics Colorado Springs, Colo.) comprised a bundle of silica fibers that delivered excimer laser energy to the distal tip to ablate atherosclerotic plaque. In one clinical trial, the catheter was found to have a high rate of misalignment and perforation due to a stiff guidewire tip and a lack of guidance.
The Frontrunner™ catheter (LuMend, Redwood City, Calif.) is designed with a blunt tip designed to micro-dissect its way through a CTO. A bilaterally hinged distal tip assembly is manually opened and closed by the clinician to accomplish micro-dissection. The device has found some success in treating peripheral CTOs and also has a niche in treating coronary cases with refractory in-stent CTOs wherein the stent serves to confine and guide the device through the occlusion. However, the Frontrunner™ is not suitable for the majority of coronary CTO cases due to poor steerability and the lack of guidance.
The Safe Cross™ guidewire (Intraluminal Therapeutics, Carlsbad, Calif.) combines RF ablation capability with reflectometry at the distal tip. The optical reflectometry system provides a warning signal when the guidewire tip is too close to the vessel wall, and the RF ablation provides a way to cross hard calcified plaque. The device has had some success in recent clinical trials, but it is difficult to use and has yet to show widespread acceptance by interventionalists. The issue with the Safe Cross™ guidewire is that the optical reflectometry system generates a warning signal so frequently that leaves the operator at a loss as to what to do. Such a “negative” signal only tells the clinician what to avoid, and fails to provide positive guidance for guidewire steering and advancement. Furthermore, there is no definitive indication of whether the guidewire tip is intra-luminal or extra-luminal. If for any reason the guidewire tip had accidentally perforated the vessel wall, the reflectometry signal would become useless.
Another way to provide a guidance signal for a catheter is to use laser-induced fluorescence. The healthy tissue of the artery wall and the atherosclerotic plaque attached to the wall have different fluorescent spectra or “signatures.” A system that detects this fluorescent signatures should be able to tell whether the distal tip of the catheter is surrounded by healthy tissue or by plaque. A warning signal derived from laser induced fluorescence may have some advantages over the optical reflectometry signal, but the drawbacks are similar, namely, no geometric information about the diseased vessel.
A much more effective CTO intervention involves the use of imaging to guide the advancement of guidewires and catheters. Fluoroscopy is a well-established real-time external imaging modality. Fluoroscopy is used to guide many procedures, but its efficacy in CTO intervention has proven to be rather limited. Even with bi-plane projections, fluoroscopic images are hard to interpret for totally occluded vessel regions. Another issue with excessive dependence on fluoroscopy arises from the fact that CTO procedures are often time-consuming. Radiation safety as well as contrast fluid dosage are additional variables that the clinicians must monitor carefully during an already-stressful CTO intervention. Given these considerations, it is clear that an intravascular image-guided device would be highly valuable for CTO intervention.
A number of intravascular imaging devices have been developed to date. Angioscopy can supply visual information on the luminal surface, using a fiber bundle to illuminate the intraluminal space and also to collect reflected light to form an image. Angioscopy requires flushing the blood and replacing it with saline, a procedure that requires temporarily occluding the blood vessel and can cause prolonged ischemia to the heart. Because of this problem, angioscopy is used rarely other than for research purposes.
Intravascular ultrasound, or IVUS, can provide a cross-sectional image in a plane perpendicular to the catheter's axis. IVUS can image through blood with an acceptable range and has become a very successful diagnostic tool in interventional cardiology. In IVUS, an ultrasonic transducer is embedded in the distal end of an imaging catheter. The catheter is advanced through the vascular system to the target area. The transducer emits ultrasonic pulses and listens for echoes from the surrounding tissue to form a one-dimensional image. The catheter can be rotated to obtain two-dimensional imaging data, or alternatively, a solid-state IVUS with an annular array of transducers at the catheter distal surface can be used to perform 2D image scanning. Combined with a controlled pullback motion, the device can also obtain three-dimensional image data in a cylindrical volume centered on the catheter. While IVUS would at first appear to be an attractive solution for guiding the advancement of a guidewire through a CTO, existing IVUS catheters have proven difficult to advance through occluded regions having a significant degree of fibrosis. For short occlusions, a clinician might be able to use a forward-looking IVUS to guide the advancement of the guidewire through the blockage, but even such forward-looking IVUS are still under development and not yet commercially available.
Optical coherence tomography is a relatively new imaging modality that has been considered for use in CTO intervention. The module uses low-coherence light interferometry to map out the optical absorption and scattering properties of the tissue under illumination. Optical coherence tomography provides image resolution that is about 10 times better than IVUS, but the imaging range is limited to a maximum of 3 to 4 millimeters. In addition, imaging through blood is very difficult even with carefully-chosen infrared wavelength for the light source. Without a significantly better imaging range, the microscopic resolution is of little usage to CTO guidance, as the most decisive clue that the clinicians can use during a procedure is the large-scale geometric feature that reveal the contour of the blood vessel wall.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,887,605 by Angelsen, et al., describes a laser catheter with an integrated ultrasound imaging module. A housing at the distal end of the catheter contains the ultrasonic transducer. An optical fiber is placed in a central through bore and delivers laser energy to the tissue to be treated. Unfortunately, this device would be difficult to advance through a CTO, because the area that contains the ultrasonic transducer apparently lacks the ability to ablate plaque. In addition, Angelsen, et al., discloses no ability to perform forward imaging.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,587,972 by Morantte also described a combined laser ablation and ultrasound-imaging catheter. The catheter contains a fiber bundle for laser delivery and ultrasound transducers that emits in the forward direction. However, Morantte's catheter is apparently bulky and difficult to advance through CTOs.
What is needed in the art is a fundamentally new catheter not only capable of performing both tissue imaging and ablation, but also capable of being readily advanced through occluded blood vessels. What is still further needed in the art is a catheter that can be used in conjunction with conventional metal guidewires or with ablative guidewires in a procedure. What is yet further needed in the art is a catheter that is useful for percutaneous transluminal therapy of CTOs in both the coronary and peripheral systems.